The Scroll Communities and the Essenes

A Comparison

(1) The Essene Controversy
Writing in the latter part of the first century C.E., Pliny described the area bordering the Dead Sea and associated it with the Essenes.

"Lying below the Essenes was formerly the town of Engedi [infra hos Engada], second only to Jerusalem in the fertility of its land and in its groves of palm trees, but now like the other place [Jerusalem] a heap of ashes. Next comes Masada, a fortress on a rock, itself also not far from the Dead Sea. This is the limit of Judea."
     - Pliny the Elder (23 C.E?-79 C.E.)

"There has been much discussion of the phrase 'infra hos Engada,'concerning the relative location of Jericho, the Essene settlement, Ein Gedi, and Masada. Pliny used over 100 sources, so it is not surprising that 'infra' is used in a variety of ways. It has frequently been pointed out that Pliny here does use the sense of 'downstream' which the North to South movement here suggests, rather than placing them in hills west of Ein Gedi, hills whose existence he does not mention. It has also often been noted that, despite intensive archaeological surveys, no site other than the Qumran/Ein Feshkha complex qualifies."
     - Stephen Goranson, "Rereading Pliny on the Essenes: Some Bibliographic Notes"

"This [Pliny's] statement could only have been written after Jerusalem had been destroyed by the Romans in the wake of its capture in the summer of A.D. 70. By this token the Essenes living above En Gedi could not have been identical with the group of people then living at Qumran, who in and after A.D. 70, according to the archaeological team's own findings, were Roman soldiers, not Jewish sectarians. Pliny's Essenes would have had to be another group, living elsewhere - and apparently closer to En Gedi. Jerusalem itself was known to have had a 'gate of the Essenes', implying a relatively large number of these sectarians within the city before the revolt, and it may well be that they themselves fled to Pliny's location above En Gedi during or after the siege."
     - Norman Golb, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls?, (1995) p. 19

Scholars explain this disrepancy about the exact location of the Essenes on Pliny's ignorance of Judaean geography.

"Most scholars do not believe Pliny ever visited this country, pointing to his frequent jumbling of facts. Jerusalem, for instance, was indeed a heap of ashes in the wake of its conquest by the Romans, but the fertile land and palm trees plainly belonged to Jericho. Elsewhere he assigns Gamla to Samaria instead of the distant Golan Heights."
     - Abraham Rabinovich, "A new 'address' for the Essenes ", Jerusalem Post, February 4, 1998

Stephen Goranson of Duke University argues that Pliny's account is accurate because it is based on a source written more than 80 years before the Jewish War 66-70 CE.

"Pliny held various government and army posts in Europe (where he served with Titus), but Pliny was never in Judaea. Pliny's source on Judaean toparchies as well as Essenes was probably Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the governor of Syria, friend of Herod the Great, and maker of a map and commentary."
"Pliny's source, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, referred to the destruction of Ein Gedi c. 40 BCE, during the Parthian invasion and Jewish civil war, and not the destruction in the First Revolt. Agrippa describes the state of Qumran/Ein Feshkha and Ein Gedi c.15 B.C.E., when, as a map-maker, commentator, and governor of Syria, he visited Herod, including at Herodion and Hyrcania. The reason Ein Gedi was not included in the toparchy list in the time of Herod the Great is that it was not substantially rebuilt until after his death; it was rebuilt sufficiently in time to assume a place on the list of Josephus. Pliny's text does not remark that Masada had been destroyed, which is a strong indication that Pliny did not add recent news to his Herodian source."
     - Stephen Goranson, "Rereading Pliny on the Essenes: Some Bibliographic Notes"

"...It should be pointed out that this hypothetical source was in Palestine at a time [around 15 BCE] when most archaeologists working in the field believe that Qumran was uninhabited."
     - Ian Hutchesson (CrossTalk)

"Archaeological work by Jodi Magness, Yaacov Meshorer, et al. shows Qumran was occupied at the time of M. Agrippa, who died in 12 B.C.E. This corrects the dating of the periods by de Vaux. The destruction of Qumran Ib was either near the end of Herod's life (perhaps he turned against Essenes) or in the disturbances shortly after his death in 3 BCE."
     - Stephen Goranson, "Rereading Pliny on the Essenes: Some Bibliographic Notes"

Stephen Goranson "fails to adequately account for the fact that Pliny, who was writing after the Jewish War (but before the eruption of Vesuvius!), wrote specifically in the passage of the destruction of Jerusalem and links the ruin of En Gedi to that time, yet his Essenes were alive and well and living apparently overlooking the now destroyed town. With Pliny's awareness of the effects and the outcome of the war in mind, Stephen argues that Pliny is actually using a source that derives from 80 years previous to the fact to deal with this parenthetical report on the Essenes."
     - Ian Hutchesson (CrossTalk)

Dio Chrysostom, a contemporary of Pliny, is the only other ancient writer to place the Essenes at the Dead Sea. His reference is to a city, not an area.

"...He praises the Essenes, a very blessed city [Greek: poliV] situated near the Dead Water in the interior of Palestine in the vicinity of Sodoma."
     - Dio Chrysostom, Synesius

This supports the argument that the Essenes lived in a community of dwellings like En Gedi rather than a single structure like Khirbat Qumran. It is bolstered by fact that grave sites were located quite close to Khirbat Qumran, in violation of the purity laws of the Essenes.

"...Considering Pliny's reference to palm trees, En Gedi was famous for its palms whereas the nearest palms to Qumran were a few kilometers south; the higher sea level at the turn of the era put Qumran much closer to the sea, yet Pliny talks of the settlement being out of range of the harm from the sea."
     - Ian Hutchesson (CrossTalk)

"Pliny had described the Essenes as living under palm trees, without money or women, and at Khirbat Qumran the archaeologists had found exactly the reverse. Women were buried in the settlement cemetery, money was stashed under the floors, and there had never been any palm trees growing on the dry desert bluff."
     - John Romer, Testament

Click here for recent findings against Qumran as a communal center.

(2) Similarities of Beliefs

Doctrine of Predestination

"...The sect of the Essenes affirm, that fate governs all things, and that nothing befalls men but what is according to its determination."
     - Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Bk XIII, Ch V, Sn 9

"Essenes emphasize the role of fate, or divine providence, in all things, unlike the Pharisees and Sadducees, who allow for some scope for free will (Ant. 13.171-173); the doctrine of predestination is common in the scrolls. (See the Charter 2:13-4:26 for its most notable expresson)."
     - Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (1996) p. 15

"All that is now and ever shall be originates with the God of knowledge. Before things come to be, He has ordered all their designs, so that when they do come to exist - at their appointed times as ordained by His glorious plan - they fulfill their destiny, a destiny impossible to change. He controls the laws governing all things, and He provides for all their pursuits."
     - Community Rule 1QS 3.15-17

Also the doctrine is reflected in the Thanksgiving Psalms that many researchers attribute to the Teacher of Righteousness:

"Everything is engraved before You with the ink of remembrance for all the times of eternity, for the numbered seasons of eternal years in all their appointed times. Nothing is hidden, nor does anything exist apart from Your presence."
     - Thanksgiving Psalms 1QH 9.24-25

Transfer of Property

"But now if any one hath a mind to come over to their sect [the Essenes], he is not immediately admitted, but he is prescribed the same method of living which they use for a year, while he continues excluded..."
"These men are despisers of riches, and so very communicative as raises our admiration. Nor is there any one to be found among them who hath more than another; for it is a law among them, that those who come to them must let what they have be common to the whole order, - insomuch that among them all there is no appearance of poverty, or excess of riches, but every one's possessions are intermingled with every other's possessions..."
     - Flavius Josephus, War of the Jews, II, VIII, Sn 7, 4

"Josephus says that 'those entering the sect transfer their property to the order' (War 2.122); the Charter says that new members must give their property to the Overseer (6:19; see also 1:11-12; 5:1-2)."
     - Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (1996) p. 15

"If it be ordained, in the opinion of the priests and the majority of the men of their covenant, then he shall be initiated further into the secret teaching of the Yahad. They shall also take steps to incorporate his property, putting it under the authority of the Overseer together with that of the general membership..."
     - Community Rule 1QS 6:21-23

Probationary Period

"But now if any one hath a mind to come over to their sect, he is not immediately admitted, but he is prescribed the same method of living which they use for a year, while he continues excluded'; and they give him also a small hatchet, and the fore-mentioned girdle, and the white garment. And when he hath given evidence, during that time, that he can observe their continence, he approaches nearer to their way of living, and is made a partaker of the waters of purification; yet is he not even now admitted to live with them; for after this demonstration of his fortitude, his temper is tried two more years; and if he appear to be worthy, they then admit him into their society."
     - Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Bk. II, VIII, Sn 7a

"The Essenes allow new members to join only after a period of one trial year, when the novice whose his aptitude for the Essene way of life, followed by two years as a probationary member with some privileges (War 2.137-138); according to the Charter, the would-be initiate must also pass a trial year as a member, and then a second year (note not two more years) under probation (6:13-23) before becoming a full member.
"There is also some striking agreement in details."
     - Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (1996) p. 15

"Practices of the Essenes, such as the initiation described in Josephus, parallel Qumran texts, in this case, both serek hayahad and the ostracon discovered at Qumran which is a Herodian-period deed of gift (to the community) in the second year of that initiation process."
     - Stephen Goranson (CrossTalk - 4 Jan 1999)

"If he [the initiate] does proceed in joining the society of the Yahad, he must not touch the pure food of the general membership before they have examined him as to his spiritual fitness and works, and not before a full year has passed. Further, he must not yet admix his property with that of the general membership. When he has passed a full year in the Yahad, the general membership shall inquire into the details of his understanding and works of the Law. If it be ordained, in the opinion of the priests and the majority of the men of their Covenant, then he shall be initiated further into the secret teaching of the Yahad."
"The initiate is not to touch the drink of the general membership prior to passing a second year among the men of the Yahad. When that second year has passed, the general membership shall review his case."
     - Community Rule 1QS 6:16b-19a, 20b-21

No Spitting

The Essenes "avoid spitting in the midst of the group or on the right side."
     - Josephus, War 2.147)

"Anyone who spits into the midst of a session of the general membership is to be punished."
     - Community Rule 1QS 7:13

(3) Differences of Beliefs

"In 1959 Cecil Roth wrote an article for Revue de Qumran (1959/60, p.417ff), in which he outlines why the Essenes could not have been involved in Qumran....Here is a summary of his arguments.

1. Pliny, Philo and Josephus all indicate that the Essenes were a pacific body, yet the War Scroll (amongst others) is directly bellicose. One cannot argue that, because Josephus does mention 'one (ex?-) Essene who fought in the War', the Essenes were in fact bellicose.

2. Philo, Pliny and Josephus (in most of his comments) describe the Essenes as celibate, yet the Qumran Sect was clearly not so.

3.There are a number of divergences between the Essenes and the Qumran Sect (Roth verbatim):

a.The Essenes disapproved of slavery: the Qumran Sect tolerated it. b.The Essenes disapproved of animal sacrifices: the Qumran Sect admitted it and paid special deference to priests. c.The Essenes avoided oaths: the Qumran sect prescribed them, on certain occasions. d.'Baptism' among the Essenes had a regenerative power: there is no evidence in the voluminous Dead Sea literature that this was the case in the Qumran Sect. e.The Essenes practised community of property: the Qumran Sect did so, if at all, in only a restricted degree.

4. The people who occupied the site before abandonment circa 31 BCE would have reoccupied the site after the earthquake and not waited another 37 years to do so. If Essenes were there prior to 31 BCE then it is not likely that those who reoccupied the site were Essenes.

5. Pliny's account, and indirectly Josephus's account as well, describe the 'Essenes as flourishing undisturbed after the hostilities', ie the Jewish War.

6. If the Essenes 'were held up as models of behaviour by the Romanophile Josephus' and so admired by Pliny, why was their centre destroyed by the Romans?

7. The Essenes are located in the Dead Sea region by Pliny who relates them to being in the vicinity of Ein Gedi. Why would he make that connection when Qumran was much closer to the better known Jericho?

8. Philo tells us the Essenes were held as exemplary and had no clashes with any of the rulers of Palestine. The DSS however shows a central episode in the history of the Qumran Sect as being a conflict with authorities in Jerusalem.
     - Stephen Goranson, Cecil Roth: Why the Qumran Sect cannot have been Essenes"

Celibacy
"The precise reason for the practice of celibacy at Qumran (or among the Essenes in general) is still debated: a Sinai-covenant theology that demanded sexual abstinence in preparation for encounter with God (cf. Exodus 19:15); the extension of the rules for priestly cultic purity to the whole community, which was a living temple worshipping God in the company of the angels; or the belief that the group was or would be engaged in a holy war in the company of the angels against the powers of evil at the end of time."
     - John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew - Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Vol. 1.

"...Josephus and Pliny and the Jewish philosopher Philo all describe the Essenes as celibate - indeed, it is perhaps their most arresting trait. But the scrolls contain no command to be celibate; on the contrary, numerous passages presuppose the opposite, that the group members will be married."
     - Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (1996) p. 24

"Josephus, writing about the same time as Pliny, indeed states that there was also a noncelibate Essenic order; but does not locate it in any specific or singular area of Palestine. Pliny along placed celibate Essenes in a defined region of Judea, the archaeologists insisting that Qumran was the place he was alluding to."
     - Norman Golb, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls?, (1995) p. 18

"Moreover, there is another order of Essenes, who agree with the rest as to their way of living, and customs, and laws, but differ from them in the point of marriage, as thinking that by not marrying they cut off the principal part of human life, which is the prospect of succession; nay, rather, that if all men should be of the same opinion, the whole race of mankind would fail. However, they try their spouses for three years; and if they find that they have their natural purgations thrice, as trials that they are likely to be fruitful, they then actually marry them. But they do not use to accompany with their wives when they are with child, as a demonstration that they do not many out of regard to pleasure, but for the sake of posterity. Now the women go into the baths with some of their garments on, as the men do with somewhat girded about them."
     - Flavius Josephus, War of the Jews, II, VIII, Sn 13

War vs. Peace

"You cannot find among them any maker of arrows, spears, swords, helmets, corselets, or shields, any maker of arms or war-machines, any one busied in the slightest with military avocations or even with those which, during peace, slip easily into mischief."
     - Philo Judaeus (ca. 20 C.E.)

"Philo also says that the Essenes pursued only peaceful occupations - and yet the War Scroll gives detailed prescriptions for the conduct of a very real, though future, armed conflict against the powers of darkness.

"[...] and the men of the army shall be from forty to fifty years old. The commissioners of the camps shall be from fifty to sixty years old. The officers shall also be from forty to fifty years old. All those who strip the slain, plunder the spoil, cleanse the land, guard the arms, and he who prepares the provisions, all these shall be from twenty-five to thirty years old. No youth nor woman shall enter their encampments from the time they leave Jerusalem to go to battle until their return."
     - The War Scroll 1QM 7:1-4a

Swearing Oaths
"Josephus (War 2.135) and Philo did report that the Essenes shunned oaths (Every Good Man Is Free 84); but in tension with this description is Josephus's statement, in line with the Dead Sea Scrolls (especially 1QS), that the initiate 'is made to swear tremendous oaths' (War 2.139). Apparently, the Essenes swore oaths only to fellow Essenes and only to solidify solidarity with the community. Josephus later mentioned the oaths that the Essenes swear to the community (War 2.142). H. Ringgren rightly claimed, 'The Dead Sea Scrolls do not know of a prohibition against oaths...' Ringgren, The Faith of Qumran: Theology of the Dead Sea Scrolls, trans. E. T. Sander (Philadelphia, 1963) P. 236."
     - James H. Charlesworth, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Historical Jesus" in Jesus and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1992), p. 69

Slavery
"Philo and Josephus also agree that the Essenes rejected slavery - and yet the Damascus Document has rules governing the treatment of slaves (11:12, 12:10-11). Another writing, called here Ordinances (text 17), further regulates slavery."
     - Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (1996) p. 25

"His servant and his maidservant he may not sell to them [the Gentiles], if they have entered with him into Abraham's covenant."
     - Damascus Document CD 12:10-11

Calendar
"The doctrine that God had commanded Israel to follow a 364-day solar calendar instead of a 354-day lunar calendar was a key tent of the Qumran group. This peculiar calendar unifies the scrolls more than any other single sectarian element. Yet Josephus and Philo say nothing of the calendar. The scrolls strongly emphasize the role of priests in the group leadership; but again, Josephus says not a word about priestly dominance, although he himself came from a priestly family and claims to have studied with the Essenes as a youth. Josephus also fails to mention the Teacher of Righteousness in his extensive descriptions of the Essenes."
     - Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (1996) p. 25

Apparel

"After which [the ffth hour] they assemble themselves together again into one place; and when they have clothed themselves in white veils, they then bathe their bodies in cold water."
     - Flavius Josephus, War of the Jews, II, VIII, Sn 5

"Josephus mentions, among other things, the white garments of the Essenes - of which the scrolls say nothing."
     - Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (1996) p. 25

Click here for the complete text of Josephus on the Essenes.